الاخ الكريم عبدالرحمن وفقه الله
السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته .. وبعد
فهذه بعض المقالات والابحاث استأذن الدكتور ابراهيم في ان اضعها هنا فلقد تعبت من ارسالها على ايميلك وتعود الي بما يفيد عدم ارسالها.
وقد تكون فرصة ليطلع الاخوة الاعضاء على بعض ماورد فيها واحد الدراسات خاصة بتعليم الاحياء وقد تكون مفيدة جداً لك.
اخي لاتتردد اذ لم يكن هذا مطلبك في ان تحدد لي بالضبط وماتريد وساكون سعيداً ان احقق المطلوب .
لك تحياتي ودعواتي.
بحر العلوم<div align="left"></div>
Integrating computer/multimedia technology in a high school biology curriculum
Author: Matray, Paul; Proulx, Steve Source: American Biology Teacher v57n8 (Nov 1995): 511-520 ISSN: 0002-7685 Number: 02604228 Copyright: Copyright National Association of Biology Teachers 1995
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
COMPUTERS provide an opportunity to present biological material in an exciting and engaging manner (Duhrkopf 1989b, 1990). We use software programs to illustrate and elucidate biological concepts that can be more clearly and effectively communicated via this technology than through more traditional means--lecture, discussion or conventional laboratory activities. The benefits go beyond simply providing a better way to introduce and reinforce various biological ideas; they show students that a computer is much more than simply a glorified typewriter. In most high school curriculums there are few courses that teach the application of computer use beyond a word processing or programming course. Parents who use computers at work and travel with laptops are coming to expect that schools prepare their children for the technological world that they will undoubtedly be entering. Many parents are using modems, databases and spreadsheets, and graphing programs in their occupations; they know that their children need some experience in this area (Snelling 1993). The more comfortable our students become in the use of computers in various areas of their education, the better prepared they will be for the job market or college.
The challenge for teachers is how to integrate technology throughout a high school biology program. It is often difficult for a teacher to see how various software packages might be used in a curriculum and what their ultimate benefits might be. We have been using computer software in our classroom instruction for the past eight years. The software programs for the first five years were Apple IIe programs, which ranged from deer population growth to genetics experiments to diet analysis. Four years ago we moved into a new computer center and converted to a Macintosh-based system.
Hardware
Nintendo and the superior graphic capabilities of the more advanced computer systems that many of our students have access to cause them to expect comparable/state-of-the-art technology in the classroom. It was becoming clear that the students were finding the Apple IIe software somewhat dated. They were amused by the lack of sophistication in the software, and we realized that Apple was beginning to phase out the system. We therefore decided to replace the eight Apple IIe computers with eight Macintosh LCII computers (4MB RAM/40MB HD) with 12-inch color monitors ($1260 each). This past summer we moved them to our lower school and replaced them with Macintosh LC5200 8MB RAM/ 500MB HD ($1699). We sold our old Apple IIe systems ($250 each) to another school system to offset the cost of replacement. We debated about whether or not to include IIe cards in the LCII's but decided that we could find replacement software for our old Apple IIe software.
We also purchased eight Pioneer 2200 LaserDisc players ($695 each) and a comparable number of 13-inch color Sanyo television sets. The Sanyo television ($169) was the least expensive set that also had an earphone plug located on the front of the unit. These systems were interfaced with the Macintosh computers to create eight multimedia stations. These eight stations were networked via Farallon Appletalk boxes ($195 for a 10-pack) to two Hewlett Packard Deskwriters ($369 each). This arrangement allows any station to print out text or graphic material at any time.
For demonstration purposes we also purchased a Sanyo video projector ($3600) and a 27-inch Mitsubishi television ($650). In order to project the Red-Green-Blue computer image onto the composite television screen, a video encoder ($195) was purchased, and a Macintosh Display Card 8:24 ($489) was purchased and placed in our Macintosh IIsi. This allows us to project color computer images onto a big screen display. The video projector not only enables us to demonstrate software to an entire class on an eight-foot square screen, but it also is used to project outlines during lectures using a word processing program or a presentation program. We also have a black-and-white LCD projection system which is placed on an overhead projector and is much less expensive (about $1250--educator pricing).
Software
Determining which software packages to purchase to support your particular approach to the teaching of biology is a time-consuming endeavor. Your choice of software is based on your own personal curriculum and teaching style and is probably one of the most important. Much of the software presently available in the area of biology is of uneven quality, and there isn't a very extensive choice. This fact obviously limits what you can do.
Software selection can be aided by the use of a catalog published by Apple (Macintosh Educational Software Guide, Apple Computer, Inc., and three CD-ROM programs, which we used before our purchase of Macintosh software. Intellimation has placed its library on a CD-ROM disc, which includes demos and selected screens that give you a good idea of their content. It has a very convenient indexing system, which allows you to select only those areas of interest to you and then indicates the appropriate software titles and corresponding material. Apple Computer has created a science and math CD-ROM disc (Curriculum Integration Guide-Science and Math, Apple Computer, Inc.) and a more general education CD-ROM disc (Macintosh Educational Software Guide--The CD, Apple Computer, Inc.) All of these sources can speed the process of evaluating what is available and give some idea of whether or not programs meet your needs. New software is constantly being developed, and by attending conferences and reading journals and advertisements you can keep abreast of newly introduced software. The key is reviewing it and determining whether or not it meets your needs. Most companies have a 30- or 45-day trial period which is a convenient and inexpensive way to preview software.
The software we ultimately chose can be divided into two main categories: multimedia software/videodisc and computer software. The multimedia programs contain one or two videodiscs and associated HyperCard® stacks which are used to access the videodisc. Duhrkopf & Kramer (1990), Kramer (1991), and Huang & Aloi (1991) have discussed the use of interactive video and describe the hardware configuration as well as the impact this technology can have on biology education. We have purchased programs from two companies--Scholastic (their NOVA series) and ABC Interactive. Scholastic programs can be purchased from various dealers throughout the United States--we purchased Race to Save the Planet (Ecology) and Animal Pathfinders (Behavior and Ecology) from The Reading & Computing Place ($395 each). ABC Interactive has four programs which we incorporated into our health and human reproduction units--AIDS, Human Sexuality, Tobacco, and Drugs Substance Abuse. We purchased two of each of these programs from Optical Data ($495 each).
Intellimation (Intellimation Library for the Macintosh) has a relatively large selection of inexpensive science-oriented software. We purchased Mitosis/Meiosis ($35-single copy) and MacDiet ($135-single copy) from Intellimation, and Cellular Respiration (Shareware) from EDUCORP Computer Services. Logal Software, Inc. in their biology explorer series has produced four software programs. We decided to purchase the Photosynthesis, Genetics, and Cardiovascular Fitness programs (the fourth program is Population Ecology). Single copy versions of each cost $125, additional copies are $25 each, and a network version is $500. Mystery Fossil ($15.95 a copy) is a HyperCard stack that accompanies a course in physic anthropology. It is distributed through the Mayfield Publishing Company.
Curriculum integration
We purchased the software described above because it fits well into our curriculum by better illustrating ideas we cover. It is interspersed throughout the year to provide a good balance between computer work and more traditional labs. In the following paragraphs we will describe how we incorporate the various programs we have purchased into our curriculum.
Scientific Method
The Animal Pathfinders multimedia program takes the students through an actual research project involving long-term studies on monarch butterfly migration. It includes interviews with each of the researchers involved, and uses both the computer and the videodisc player to help the students first find background information, develop hypotheses, then set up tests of the hypotheses and a means for collecting data from the experiments. Once the data are collected, the students are helped to draw conclusions. All along the way it is easy to discuss the various parts of the scientific method while letting the students be a part of the process, a technique not easily accomplished in another manner. This does not preclude a hands-on lab, and, in fact, we follow this sequence with a lab that allows students the opportunity to develop their own hypotheses and test them in an experimental setting. It is very easy to use Animal Pathfinders as a demonstration program at the front of the classroom with assorted handouts for the students to write down their data; it also works very well for individual teams of students.
Ecology
We use the multimedia program Race to Save the Planet when we cover ecology. One part of this program includes information on the general areas of life, atmosphere, water and land (see Figure 1). (Figure 1 omitted) Teams of students explore the HyperCard stacks of information that also access slides, movies, and fact files from the associated videodisc. We devote two lab periods to allow the students to find as much information as possible and to then put together a presentation on one of the topics that covers the following: What is the problem? What is the cause? What are the effects? and then, What are the solutions? During our first attempt we allowed the students either to write a paper or give the presentation orally, but we expect to do all presentations orally in the future. In such an exercise, the students are required to intersperse pieces from the videodisc. The program allows them to select whatever segments they may want from the videodisc and also allows the segments to be edited and placed in any order they choose. As a result, different teams of students can give very different presentations on the same topic. While reports could also be generated by sending the students to the library to do research, the access to a much broader spectrum of information and the development of more creative reports truly enhance our curriculum.
Another part of this program is an activity that puts the student in the position of President of an apple juice factory. As such, the student must deal with the complaints from environmentalists, workers and shareholders, and maneuver his or her way through making the business a successful one. This again forces students to use the scientific method to figure solutions, but without the guidance and naming of parts found with the Animal Pathfinders program described above.
Evolution
Mystery Fossil is a program that only requires a black-and-white Macintosh and allows our AP students to search for information in order to draw conclusions that they can support in debate. They are given data on eight different known and named fossils on the line leading to present day humans; and then are presented with three different as yet unnamed and, therefore, unknown or mystery fossils (see Figure 2). (Figure 2 omitted0 We assign each team one of the three mystery fossils to study. The data include measurements, morphology and graphic representations of the skull, as well as some general information that includes where the fossil was found and a glossary of the individual terms presented. The students also use a dating chart, an anatomy chart, a map of where the skulls have been found, and three different phylogenetic trees (multi-origin theory, unilineal and branching). The students must place their mystery fossil into one of the three phylogenetic trees. We then have them debate their placement with the other teams that were assigned the same mystery fossil. Since there is no "right" placement, this program stimulates a great deal of debate. Therefore, in one simple program the students learn about the scientific method and the acquisition of information, as well as public speaking and debating human evolution along the lines of Richard Leakey and Donald Johansen.
Mitosis & Meiosis
We use the program Mitosis and Meiosis for both our introductory and AP courses. It is another program that only requires the Macintosh, but the graphic representations of each of the stages are far superior to those of any program we used with the Apple IIe and hopefully helps the students to better understand this continuing process. Although we use beads to represent genes and chromosomes for a more "hands-on" experience with mitosis, the simulations on the screen seem to provide a means for understanding that is not possible in another manner.
Photosynthesis
The program Photosynthesis is an incredible graphic presentation elucidating all the parts of this very difficult process in as much detail as you wish to find. The documentation that comes with the program includes a variety of student worksheets that can be used without alteration or as starting points for teacher-generated ideas. Because of the depth that this program covers, we are able to use it with our introductory course and our AP class without much overlap of material, which means the program will still be good two years from now when our present introductory students may be enrolled in our AP class.
Starting with the basic equation for photosynthesis and a diagram of a leaf, students can vary the quantities of each of the following: the amount of carbon dioxide, the amount of water, the light level, or the wavelength of light present. Running the simulation allows students to monitor the oxygen produced in a data table or in graph form as an indicator of photosynthesis occurring. Varying amounts of needed materials and then monitoring products help students gain an appreciation for what is happening when a leaf traps light energy. The AP class goes into more detail by looking at the actual chemical equations of the light reactions and viewing representations of the inner workings of the chloroplasts--the thylakoid membranes and how the chemiosmotic pump works. They are able to use a tool to puncture the thylakoid membrane and note the effects on the photosynthetic process.
This will always be a challenging topic for students to learn, and the labs that we have done in the past have been difficult, lengthy and not as clear as we would like, but through this program there is the opportunity to regulate resources in a much shorter period of time and to generate results that are much more understandable.
Cellular Respiration
While this is a far simpler program than Photosynthesis, Cellular Respiration is a black-and-white program for the Macintosh that divides the process into the major steps: glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport system (see Figure 3). (Figure 3 omitted) It covers each step individually and shows where each of them occurs in the cell. In addition, it does a good job of animating the making and splitting of ATP molecules. Because cellular respiration, like photosynthesis, is typically taught through endless chemical equations, students often become confused; this program is a visual presentation that gives much more meaning to the equations. As students worked on this simulation, we could see that they finally were seeing how the various reactions in the process were related to one another. Their questions and reactions as they worked through the program indicated that their understanding of the process was being reinforced and clarified. This program allowed them to work at their own speed and repeat sections that were unclear.
Nutrition & Digestion
MacDiet is another simple black-and-white program for the Macintosh that allows students to find out how nutritious their food choices are. They first record their height, weight and level of activity before inputting all the foods they have eaten over the span of a maximum of three days. The program contains listings of a wide array of foods for the students to choose from, with nutritional information included for each of the foods.
We then have the students print out the three different reports that can be produced from the program. The Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) requirements report shows how much of each of 10 different vitamins and minerals the student ate and whether or not he or she is above, below or at the RDA level. The Dietary Goals Report records the percentage of carbohydrates, fat and protein in the student's diet (see Figure 4). (Figure 4 omitted) The Activity Report then describes whether the student is gaining or losing weight, and projects his or her weight for a year from the time of the report. We then ask the students to do an analysis of he three reports that includes looking for the positives and negatives about their diets, and how they might use the information uncovered to alter their present diets. The students were amazed with what they found out about themselves in this program. Diet analysis can be accomplished in a variety of ways, including a point system (Frye & Neill 1991), but we have found that MacDiet produces easily analyzed results in a short period of time.
Circulatory & Respiratory Systems
Cardiovascular Fitness has the same toolbox and graphic representations that we find in Photosynthesis. As with Photosynthesis, this program includes assorted worksheets to give students guidance. It also includes ideas for teachers to generate their own assignments based on the program. Students can choose to see the heart, the whole body, or all parts at once while they make alterations in the life of an individual on the screen. They are able to monitor various data that include blood pressure, carbon dioxide level, and oxygen level by placing detectors into the different chambers of the heart or onto different blood vessels throughout the body--techniques that would be extraordinarily costly and difficult to manage in a typical classroom environment. They quickly see the function of the heart and the lungs, and how the organs take out nutrients and produce waste.
Some of the parts of the program we presently use include how to control blood flow, what happens in a heart attack, the effect of high blood pressure on the cardiovascular system, and how to control blood pressure. Again, because of the depth that the program covers, we use it for both the introductory and AP classes without having to worry too much about overlapping material.
Reproduction & Drugs
Over a three-week period we use the interactive multimedia programs from ABC that cover AIDS, Teenage Sexuality, Drugs and Substance Abuse, and Tobacco. Because we have eight stations and only 16 students per class, we only purchased two copies of each of the programs so that no two teams are covering exactly the same information. We assign each team one of the topics and then tell them that they are to explore all the information on one side of the videodisc they are given. The HyperCard stacks on the Macintosh access various parts of the videodisc and include specific information that interacts with the videodisc movies, slides and facts. The students then put together a 15-minute oral presentation with videodisc material to give to the rest of the class. As with Race to Save the Planet, the students can use either complete or edited movie clips from the videodisc to make their presentation better. It is up to the individual teams to determine what they feel is most important to present, so, as we found at the beginning of the year, each presentation is different and informative in its own way. Although the library does have information on these topics, we find that students really become engaged in the development of their presentations in a way that we haven't seen with traditional library research. Because of their interest, what they present to the class as a whole is more intriguing and informative and stimulates questions.
Behavior
Animal Pathfinders again makes its appearance in our curriculum as we move into the study of behavior. The information on HyperCard stacks about different animals and the assorted behavior that they exhibit provides the students with a tremendous amount of in-depth information. Using worksheets from the program, we require the students to search the stacks and the assorted clips from the videodisc to answer questions related to the behavior of the wide variety of animals discussed. The wealth of material found in one program, as opposed to the number of books that we would have to comb for information, helps to make this a very valuable tool.
Genetics
We spend about a month covering genetics, a topic that is difficult for the "mathematically challenged." Using the technique seen in many texts, Genetics leads the students through the process of discovery in figuring out how traits are passed from one generation to the next. They find, just as Mendel did, that one trait can be controlled by two "factors," and they discover Mendel's principles of dominance, segregation, and later, independent assortment. This process of discovery, we believe, helps the students to grab hold of the information more quickly and in such a way that they truly understand inheritance and see it as more than just the manipulation of letters or symbols. By mating rabbits, fruit flies or butterflies (see Figure 5) on the screen, the students are able to produce several generations of offspring in large numbers in a short period of time. (Figure 5 omitted) With a toolbar similar to those in Photosynthesis and the Cardiovascular System, students can view the actual chromosomes of the individuals with which they are working.
With our AP class, we use this program to run assorted dihybrid crosses and to introduce the concept of gene linkage and crossing over. Sex linkage, incomplete dominance and multiple alleles are introduced. By using the flexibility of the program that allows us to give students parents who have traits which we have determined, the students have to interpret data they generate to figure out how the traits are inherited. We have constructed many elaborate genetics problems in the past to help students learn genetics, but the combination of problems, along with the actual working through crosses, reinforces what we consider to be important about genetics.
Summing Up
Our experiences with computers over the past several years have shown us that technology can significantly complement a biology curriculum. We have attempted to select software programs that reinforce and supplement the topics that we have been teaching for the past 20 years. The major paradigm shift that has occurred is related to teacher/ student relationships. The computer has allowed the student to become a more active participant in his/her education and has altered our role from that of an oracle of knowledge to a guide and/or resource person. The students have become more engaged and less passive--they have become active participants rather than simple observers. They work at their own pace and find the computer to be nonjudgmental.
Technology will not replace the teacher nor will it improve the teaching ability of a weak teacher. It can, however, allow a conscientious and creative teacher to present material in more interesting and effective ways. Computer software should not replace the laboratory experience, but it can often provide an opportunity to conduct a particular lab that would not be possible in a more conventional setting due to lack of time or equipment expense. Computer simulations can, in these situations, allow a student to conduct an experiment, collect simulated data and evaluate it. Software can also help clarify a topic in a more graphic and/or animated manner, and the student can work with the program at his/her own pace.
We have also seen other benefits. In the computer lab our students work in teams of two or three, which encourages a teamwork approach--a valuable learning experience. In addition, we have introduced them to the power of the computer in another context. It has also been interesting to us to be involved in another teaching style--guide vs. lecturer. Computers allow students to explore more and memorize less. Duhrkopf (1989a) emphasizes the importance of developing software that concentrates more on the process of science (simulations) and less on the facts (drill/review). The software described above (developed since 1989) begins to fill this void. Many students find this approach uncomfortable at first because they are being asked to seek out knowledge actively rather then simply being "spoon-fed." It is clearly a more interactive experience which creates a more active learner rather than a passive receiver of knowledge. The programs described here have enriched our curriculum and present the material in a clearer, more engaging manner. Technology has not changed what we teach, only the manner in which we teach it.
References
Duhrkopf, R. (1989a). Simulating the learning cycle. The American Biology Teacher, 51(4), 246-248.
Duhrkopf, R. (1989b). What should we expect from computers in the classroom? The American Biology Teacher, 51(7), 446-447.
Duhrkopf, R. (1990). Why we use (or don't use) computers. The American Biology Teacher, 52(3), 185-186.
Duhrkopf, R. & Kramer, D.W. (1990). Using your computer for videodisc applications. The American Biology Teacher, 52(8), 511-513.
Frye, B.L. & Neill, R.L. (1991). A personalized diet evaluation for high school students. The American Biology Teacher, 53(6), 354-358.
Huang, S.D. & Aloi, J. (1991). The impact of using interactive video in teaching general biology. The American Biology Teacher, 53(5), 281-284.
Kramer, D.W. (1991). Interactive biology with videodisc. The American Biology Teacher, 53(3), 185-188.
Snelling, W.R. (1993). Projections for the next six years. Ideas & Perspectives, 18(1), 1-2.
Resources
Apple Computer, Inc. 20525 Mariani Ave., Cupertino, CA 95014, (408) 996-1010.
Computer Video. 215 Salem St., Ste. 5, Woburn, MA 01801, (800) 937-0888.
EDUCORP Computer Services. 7434 Trade St., San Diego, CA 92121-2410, (619) 536-9999.
Intellimation. Dept. 3SDA, 130 Cremora Dr., P.O. Box 1992, Santa Barbara, CA 93116-1922, (800) 346-8355.
Logal Software, Inc. P.O. Box 1499, East Arlington, MA 02174-0022. (800) LOGAL-USA/(617) 646-6467.
Mayfield Publishing Company. 1240 Villa St., Mountain View, CA 94041, (800) 433-1279.
nView Corporation. 860 Omni Blvd., Newport News, VA 23606, (800) 736-8439.
Optical Data. 30 Technology Dr., Warren, NT 07059, (800) 524-2481.
Scholastic. 730 Broadway, New York, NY 10003.
The Reading Computing Place. 14752 Beach Blvd., #200, La Mirada, CA 90638, (714) 523-9000.
Paul Matray is a Biology Instructor and Steve Prouix is Science Department Chair at Robert Louis Stevenson School, P.O. Box 657, Pebble Beach, CA 93953.
################################################## #####
Computer-based instruction
Author: Opitz, Margaret Source: Clearing House v72n1 (Sep 1998): 4-5 ISSN: 0009-8655 Number: 03972504 Copyright: Copyright Helen Dwight Reid Educational Foundation 1998
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Recently, I took a course in how to design an on-line classroom-one in which all communication between teacher and student occurs via the World Wide Web. Each of the class members designed a course (in my case it was on nursing) that was critiqued by peers, all of whom represented different disciplines; participated in synchronized (Web chat) and asynchronous (discussion forum) instruction; established on-line assignments and course resources; and created a Web or menu page.
My course was for postsecondary teachers, but it is clear that middle and high school teachers, counselors, and administrators are soon going to need the same type of training. According to Bicanich et al. (1997), 18,000 school districts in the United States are working to incorporate Internet capability into their classrooms and curricula. New ways of thinking and communication will be called for, as students become active participants in the learning process, both on an individual basis and as members of learning groups. Based on my experience, I offer eight guidelines for educators who will be using and supporting computer-based instruction:
1. Check the criteria and regulations of an accreditation agency for electronically offered programs. At my institution, I follow the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) regulations. Also, check specific program guidelines. For me that means the guidelines of the American Association of Colleges and Schools (for B.S.N. programs) and the National League for Nursing, our accrediting agency. Ask yourself, How will the technology help my school meet the educational performance standards established by the state?
2. Identify resources already at your school-for example, computer equipment, Internet connections, software and telecommunications capability; space and time allocations; staff trained and experienced in the use of the equipment; inservice training; maintenance contracts; and the capacity of the school's electrical system to handle an increased demand. At this point, also consider privacy and security regulations. Will each student have his or her own computer access code? How will students' work and testing be safeguarded?
3. Orient students to the Internet. Give them an overview of the computer's basic hardware and software operations. Demonstrate how they can access databases, use E-mail, perform word processing, and work with graphics or simulation models (especially if a lab is involved) and with various types of programs.
4. Have each student select an "E-mail pal" with whom he or she shares common interests. The computer pal may be in the same class, a different class or grade, or a different school altogether. Once students master E-mail, have them send information back and forth using E-mail file attachments.
5. Use Web links to locate other learning sites on the Web. Links may be found related to distance education in special topic areas such as biology, English, history, math, psychology, health, and so forth. For example, YAHOO, one of ten "search engines," provides an introductory page with links regarding education, including distance education, K-12 resources, and nearly thirty other categories. You can download materials to use with a class. If students in a business or economics class, for example, are learning about stocks, you can go to the Web site The Motley Fool at http//www.fool.com/school. There, you can establish a link to a study assignment on stocks or download the program, which in the case of The Motley Fool would be "The Thirteen Steps to Investing." (It is always a good idea to preview sites that you want students to link to.)
6. From a menu on the site, have students select a learning project that involves a cooperative learning approach. Students benefit from seeing samples of excellent work as well as others' mistakes. Critical thinking is facilitated: students learn to set clear objectives, ask sound questions, search for answers, receive immediate feedback, develop hypotheses and test them, construct well-thought-out conclusions, and write concise reports. Computer-mediated discussion of peer writing reduces students' hesitancy and encourages creativity and logical thought. Students can give specific, descriptive suggestions or revisions while articulating sound rationale and principles. That familiar form of global feedback-"looks good to me"-is eliminated. A "value added" outcome might be that the group publishes a mini news page on their individual projects' results or designs an individual portfolio of their work.
Also consider computer simulation learning. Most of the software is flexible and user friendly. Fourth-grade science students, for example, can simulate weather patterns; older biology students can examine the effects of running on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems; advanced students can design, run, and test models. Most important, feedback is immediate, with highly appealing visual displays and analyses.
7. Use computer-based testing, which can be perceived by students as less frustrating and anxiety producing than traditional test taking. In fact, testing may be perceived as a "simulation game" as students move through the problem-solving process. Students may prefer the Internet for test practice and self-assessment. Test results may be aggregated for group analysis, and test banks can be built that generate flexibility in test design.
Counselors may want to explore computer-based assessment measures and databases. For example, the program "Learning Plus" determines students' skills in mathematics, reading, and writing on the secondary and postsecondary level. The program is a complete system for learning skills and strategies that put students in charge of their own learning. Because of its reinforcement suggestions and self-correction features, the program builds learning self-confidence and problem-solving tactics. It is also multiculturally sensitive.
8. Build your own skills through instructor training programs. Many community colleges offer "how to" courses in the evening. Outline your computer-based instructional strengths and needs and create a personal learning plan. Practice accessing the Internet's Web sites with a "browser," the special software for viewing, such as Netscape or Internet Explorer. Most computer experts suggest that a beginner should practice at least one hour a day to learn basic skills quickly.
With Internet learning, students perceive teachers as guides and facilitators in the learning process rather than as instructors dispensing and controlling information. Careful planning, designing, and evaluating of computer-based learning can yield results for you and for your students beyond your (and their) wildest imaginations!
Reference:
Bicanich, E., T. Slivinski, S. B. Hardwicke, and J. T. Kapes. 1997. Internet-based testing: Vision or reality? Journal of Technological Horizons in Education 25 (2): 61-64.
################################################## ###########
Teachers, computer technology, and the change process
Author: Hope, Warren C Source: Clearing House v70n4 (Mar 1997): 191-193 ISSN: 0009-8655 Number: 03235016 Copyright: Copyright Helen Dwight Reid Educational Foundation 1997
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
On any given day, a principal somewhere is contemplating a plan to introduce computers into his or her school. The principal has no doubt been captivated by the promises of what computers can do to enhance learning, improve teaching, and raise test scores. A principal so engaged is about to become a change agent.
Before he or she becomes engulfed in elaborate schemes to set in motion a computer technology express, however, a word to the wise is in order: The most "innovative solutions to practical problems, the best packages of materials, can have no effect on practice if they are not diffused to the level of the practitioner" (Guba 1968, 292). In light of the fact that few of America's 2.8 million teachers use technology in their teaching (Hancock 1993; OTA 1995), it is safe to say that that diffusion has not occurred. It is possible that computer technology will follow in the footsteps of so many other wellintentioned innovations that never became integral to the curriculum (Ely 1995)-unless teachers have a change of heart or they are otherwise convinced to embrace it.
Teachers, it has been suggested, refrain from using computers in the classroom because computers cause them to question their existence as educators (Falk 1987). For teachers to use computer technology, they must see it not as a challenge to their professional roles, but as a tool that will make their work easier. Teachers also need role models (Bosch and Cardinale 1993), encouragement, ongoing staff development (OLTC 1996), time to explore the capabilities of computer technology, and a supportive environment. As a change agent, the principal must realize that teachers have emotions about computers and change. Most teachers are concerned about what computers will mean to them personally and professionally. Furthermore, the school's culture and resource system must be able to promote and sustain a computer technology initiative. There are some school cultures that encourage innovation, and there are some that do not (OTA 1995). Principals contemplating a computer technology initiative must ask themselves which type of culture dominates their schools.
Barriers to a computer initiative-regarding expertise, funds, ongoing support (OLTC 1996), leadership (Galbraith et al. 1990; Hancock 1993; Ross and Bailey 1994), and supplies-must be addressed. In particular, strong leadership is needed in the three stages of the initiative (initiation, implementation, and institutionalization).
Most schools do not have an existing group of teachers who are trained and waiting to use computers. And seldom does a school have available at one time all the resources needed for a computer technology venture. Teachers need to have sufficient opportunities to practice using computers, and they need technical assistance when they have questions or problems. If any one of these critical elements is not effectively addressed by a principal, teachers' acceptance and use of computer technology will be inhibited. Principals can use the following suggestions to introduce computer technology and make the change process easier for teachers.
Identify a Purpose for Computers in the School
The history of innovations in education informs us that change must not be undertaken just for change's sake. It is an error to yield to the temptation of acquiring technology without planning for its use (OTA 1995; OLTC 1996). In fact, many innovations introduced in schools have failed to reach their potential because their purpose was ambiguous. Teachers may not be sufficiently informed about what they are expected to accomplish with an innovation, or the innovation may not address specific needs or offer a real advantage over what teachers were already doing. Sometimes proposals do not work out because procedural elements are not spelled out or there is no acknowledgment of what it will cost teachers to develop new practices (Easdown 1996). An important question then becomes, Are computers really the solution to our problems?
A principal who says that his or her school has computers because other schools have them or because computers are the future of education unwittingly implies that the school has no strategies to facilitate teachers' use of computers or to accomplish curriculum objectives. The high cost of placing computers in a school means that a proposed initiative must not be a hit-and-miss proposition, but one calculated to bring about specific organizational outcomes. For instance, principals must ask whether computers will be used to address students' needs or increase teachers' productivity, or both. Whatever the answer, there is substantial support for the belief that before computers can be truly integrated into the teaching and learning process, teachers first have to be able to use them appropriately (Wyatt 1985; Barker 1990; Cameron 1994). Expenditures for technical assistance, training for teachers, and release time for teachers to practice are all reasons that schools must be be specific about what computers are intended to accomplish.
Involve Teachers in the Decision-Making Process
A school may not have many teachers who will have a use for one or more computer applications. Nevertheless, it is unwise to start a computer technology process without involving all teachers. Including teachers in the planning process is a key part of ensuring that technology will be used by those it is intended to support (OTA 1995).
There are also certain questions about computers that need answers from the teachers' perspective. For instance, a principal needs to know whether teachers believe that computer technology is the solution to identified problems. And the principal needs to know what barriers teachers perceive exist in the school that may inhibit successful implementation of computer technology.
A commitment from teachers to use computer technology is essential in attaining goals for computer use. Involving teachers-users and nonusers-to advise and dissent is a practical means of moving a computer initiative forward. A cadre of teachers motivated by the potential of computers can ignite the interest of other teachers to become users (Kloosterman, Campbell, and Harty 1987). This shared leadership approach (Dyrli and Kinnaman 1994) facilitates a "buy in" element that is central to teachers' acceptance of innovations.
Make Computer Technology Manageable
The computer with only one software package is capable of holding the attention of a teacher for about half a school year. Fortunately, the world of computer technology is extensive and includes hundreds of applications suitable for teaching, learning, and teacher productivity. In fact, teachers cannot possibly use all the configurations that computer technology can take or even master all the computer can do. But it is reasonable to expect that they can use computer technology to accomplish specific productivity tasks, such as writing letters, maintaining students' grades, writing lesson plans, communicating with other teachers, and publishing a classroom newsletter. Computer technology should be configured to accomplish those various tasks. For instance, if the school created a teacher work station that included a computer, a printer, and a specific software package, teachers might be asked to maintain student grades or use a word processing program.
What should be remembered is that the more complex an innovation, the longer it will take teachers to master its components (Bauchner et al. 1982), the longer it will take to realize the intended impact on objectives, and the longer it will be necessary to provide technical assistance.
Provide Ongoing Staff Development
Training teachers to perform the expected tasks with computer technology is essential (Barker 1990; Chopra 1994). That training needs to be ongoing (Hancock 1993; Levinson and Doyle 1993) and specific to the school's goals for introducing computers. Teachers will need time to practice, to experience the computer's capabilities (Fulton 1989; Weal 1992; OTA 1995), and to plan its use. "One shot" (OTA 1995) or "show and tell" training sessions (Willis 1993) in which an expert demonstrates the computer's capabilities are neither sufficient nor suitable. Effective staff development sessions allow teachers to manipulate computer technology and practice the tasks that they will actually perform. When staff development sessions end, teachers' access to computer technology needs to be immediate (Spitzer 1993; Weal 1992).
Recognize the Pitfalls of the Change Process
The world of computer technology is so fascinating that one would think that every teacher would jump for joy to experience it. Not so! There are many inhibitors lurking in a school and in the minds of teachers that can derail a computer technology initiative. As a change agent, the principal needs to be able to recognize and deal with them.
Teachers have fears about change, concerns about computer technology, and needs for assistance. After all, teachers with fifteen or more years of experience did not encounter computers in their preservice education (Kinnaman 1990), and few teachers have had more than one course or workshop in using computers (and such sessions tend to focus on simple instructional applications like drill and practice or word processing [OTA 1995]). Even today, despite the importance of technology, computer training does not hold a prominent place in the preparation experiences of teachers in most colleges of education (OTA 1995).
Although there is general acclaim that computers are helpful, user friendly, and not-as-complicated-as-youthink, that acclaim is not enough to erase teachers' fear and prompt them to become computer users. Moreover, teachers cling to familiar pedagogy and avoid the failure that they perceive will come with using technology. As a change agent, the principal needs to develop activities that help to reduce or eliminate teachers' fears. He or she can pair a nonusing teacher with one who is a user of computer technology,
schedule release time for teachers to experiment with computer technology,
arrange teacher visits to schools where teachers are using technology,
provide individual help sessions on the specified configuration of computer technology, and
create a school environment that supports teachers' efforts to use computer technology, even though they may not be practicing according to the ideal vision.
Don't Mandate the Use of Computers
Principals have considerable power to make unilateral decisions. They can, if they choose, simply state that the school is going to move into the technological age and then begin the process. And it is natural to want to see computer technology succeed, especially when you are the architect of the innovation. Principals should resist the temptation to mandate teachers' use of computer technology in whatever form specified. The configuration of computer technology, in and of itself, should provide an advantage over what teachers presently do to accomplish tasks. When this is the case, their resistance to computer technology is lessened. Once this prerequisite is met, then you as change agent can focus attention on technical assistance, encouragement, and staff development rather than on manipulating teachers into becoming users.
Do praise and reward teachers when they approximate the ideal manner of using computer technology and give computer technology time to take root in the school and grow on teachers. It will not happen overnight.
Be Involved with the Change Process
When teachers see that the principal is enthusiastic about computer technology, they are likely to adopt his or her attitude. Furthermore, even when teachers are using the computer, leadership remains an important ingredient in the change process (Levinson and Doyle 1993; OTA 1995). The principal needs to give praise and incentives, arrange for release time (Naron and Estes 1985), and provide resources, encouragement (Weal 1992), and technical assistance (Sandholtz and Ringstaff 1993) if computer technology is to become a permanent fixture in a school.
Reference:
REFERENCES
Barker, B. 1990. Planning, using the new technology in classrooms.
NASSP (Nov.): 31-37.
Bauchner, J., J. W. Eiseman, P. L. Cox, and W. H. Schmidt. 1982. People, policies, and practice. Examining the chain of school improvement. Volume 3, Models of change. A study of dissemination efforts supporting school improvement. Andover, Mass.: The Network, Inc. Bosch, K. A., and L. Cardinale. 1993. Preservice teachers' perceptions of computer use during a field experience. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education (fall): 23-27.
Cameron, S. 1994. Technology in the classroom. Proceed with caution.
Computer-Mediated Communications Magazine (July): 9. Chopra, R. 1994. Using technology in schools to empower our young people. NASSP (Sept.): 1-9.
Dyrli, O., and D. Kinnaman. 1994. Moving from successful classroom
to successful schools. Technology and Learning (March): 46-54. Easdown, G. 1996. Oltpd@oltc.edu.au. Encouraging teachers to explore educational computing and to integrate the use of computers and allied technology into their teaching practice: A British perspective. [http://www.oltc.edu.au/oltpd/docs/inv06.html.] Ely, D. 1995. Technology is the answer! But what was the question? Report No. IR 017 078. Capstone College of Education Society, University of Alabama. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 381 152).
Falk, J. 1987. Computers and teachers: A chance for professional renewal. In Teacher renewal: Professional issues, personal choices. edited by F. S. Bolin and J. M. Falk, 130-37. New York: Teachers College Press.
Fulton, K. 1989. Technology training for teachers: A federal perspective.
Educational Technology (March): 12-17.
Galbraith, P. L., R. D. Grice, M. C. Carss, L. Endean, and M. Warry. 1990. Instructional technology in education: Whither its future. Educational Technology (August): 18-25.
Guba, E. 1968. Diffusion of innovation. Educational Leadership (Jan.): 292-95.
Hancock, V. 1993. Primer for a tech-happy faculty. America's Agenda
(fall): 36-39.
Hunt, N. P., and R. M. Bohlin. 1995. Events and practices that promote positive attitudes and emotions in computing courses. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education (spring): 21-23. Kinnaman, D. 1990. Staff development. How to build your winning team. Technology and Learning (Oct.): 24-26, 28, 30. Kloosterman, P., P. Campbell. and H. Harty. 1987. School-based computer education: Practices and trends. Educational Technology (April 1987): 35-38.
Levinson, E., and D. Doyle. 1993. Doing the productivity three-step. America's Agenda (fall): 29-31.
Naron, N., and N. Estes. 1985. Technology in the schools: Trends and policies. Report No. IR 011-855. Chicago, Ill.: American Educational Research Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 262 775).
Office of Technology Assessment (OTA). 1995. Teachers and technology: Making the connection. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Open Learning Technology Corporation (OLTC). 1996. oltpd@oltc.edu.au Reintroducing computers into a school. (May). [http://www.oltc.edu.au/crt/reintro9.htm]
Ross, T., and G. Bailey. 1994. Wanted: A new literacy for the information age. NASSP (Sept.): 31-35.
Sandholtz, J., and C. Ringstaff. 1992-1993. Computers and colleagues. Apple Education Review (2): 2-8.
Spitzer, D. 1993. Training Technology: Learning Motivation. Educational Technology (May): 33.
Weal, E. 1991-1992. What administrators can do. Apple Education Review (3): 2-8.
Willis, J. 1993. What conditions encourage technology use? It depends on the context. Computers In Schools (9): 13-32. Wyatt. 1985. Teaching with technology. . . miles to go. Peabody Journal of Education (winter): 6-17.
Author Affiliation:
Warren C. Hope is an assistant professor of middle grades education at Georgia Southwestern College in Americus, Georgia.